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Investing has never been more accessible for Europeans. With the rise of commission-free trading platforms and user-friendly mobile apps, anyone can start building wealth from their smartphone. But with so many investment apps available across Europe, choosing the right one can be overwhelming.

This comprehensive guide reviews the best investment apps available in Europe in 2026, comparing their features, fees, available assets, and which type of investor each app suits best. Whether you’re a complete beginner or an experienced investor looking for a new platform, you’ll find the right app for your needs.

Disclaimer: This guide is for informational purposes only and does not constitute financial advice. Investing involves risk, including the potential loss of principal. Past performance does not guarantee future results. Always do your own research and consider consulting a qualified financial advisor before making investment decisions. The value of investments can go down as well as up.


Table of Contents

  1. Why Use Investment Apps?
  2. What to Look for in an Investment App
  3. Best Investment Apps in Europe Overview
  4. eToro: Best for Social Trading
  5. DEGIRO: Best for Low Fees
  6. Trading 212: Best for Commission-Free Trading
  7. Interactive Brokers: Best for Serious Investors
  8. Scalable Capital: Best for ETF Investing
  9. XTB: Best for Active Traders
  10. Revolut: Best for Casual Investors
  11. Lightyear: Best Newcomer
  12. Fees Comparison
  13. How to Choose the Right App
  14. Getting Started: Step by Step
  15. Frequently Asked Questions

1. Why Use Investment Apps?

Traditional investing through banks often meant high fees, minimum investment requirements, and complicated processes. Modern investment apps have changed everything.

Lower Costs

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Investment apps typically charge significantly lower fees than traditional brokers and banks. Many offer commission-free trading on stocks and ETFs, meaning you keep more of your returns. This is especially important for smaller investors where fees can eat into gains.

Accessibility

You can start investing with as little as €1 on some platforms. There are no intimidating meetings with financial advisors, no complex paperwork, and no minimum portfolio requirements. Anyone with a smartphone can begin building wealth.

Convenience

Manage your investments anywhere, anytime. Check your portfolio on your commute, execute trades during lunch break, or research new investments from your couch. Everything happens through intuitive mobile interfaces.

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Educational Resources

Many investment apps include educational content, helping beginners understand investing concepts. From basic tutorials to advanced market analysis, these resources help you make more informed decisions.

Diversification Made Easy

Investment apps make it simple to diversify across stocks, ETFs, bonds, and other assets. Features like fractional shares allow you to own pieces of expensive stocks with small amounts of money.


2. What to Look for in an Investment App

Before choosing an investment app, consider these key factors.

Available Assets

Different apps offer different investment options. Consider whether the app offers stocks from markets you’re interested in, such as US, European, and UK stocks. Check if they have ETFs for diversified, low-cost investing. Look at whether bonds are available for fixed-income investments. Some apps include cryptocurrencies if you want digital asset exposure. Consider whether they offer funds, options, or other instruments for advanced strategies.

Fees and Commissions

Understand all costs involved. Look at trading commissions for buying and selling investments. Check for currency conversion fees when buying assets in foreign currencies. Review inactivity fees if you don’t trade regularly. Understand withdrawal fees for moving money out. Be aware of spread costs, which is the difference between buy and sell prices.

Regulation and Safety

Only use apps regulated by reputable financial authorities. In Europe, look for regulation by the FCA in the UK, BaFin in Germany, AFM in the Netherlands, or other EU national regulators. Regulated platforms must keep your money in segregated accounts and participate in investor compensation schemes.

User Experience

The app should be intuitive and easy to navigate. Complex platforms can lead to mistakes, especially for beginners. Look for clean interfaces, clear information presentation, and responsive customer support.

Research and Tools

Consider what research tools the app provides. This includes price charts and technical analysis, company fundamentals and financial data, news and market updates, analyst ratings and recommendations, and portfolio analytics.

Account Types

Check if the app supports tax-advantaged accounts available in your country, such as ISAs in the UK, or standard investment accounts suitable for your needs.


3. Best Investment Apps in Europe Overview

AppBest ForMin. DepositCommissionAvailable In
eToroSocial trading, beginners$50-$2000% stocksMost of Europe
DEGIROLow fees, serious investors€0.01Very lowMost of Europe
Trading 212Commission-free trading€10%Most of Europe
Interactive BrokersAdvanced investors€0Very lowAll Europe
Scalable CapitalETF investing€1€0.99 or freeGermany, Austria, expanding
XTBActive traders€00% (up to €100k/month)Most of Europe
RevolutCasual investors€1Limited free tradesAll Europe
LightyearSimple, low fees€10%UK, Europe

4. eToro: Best for Social Trading

eToro pioneered social trading, allowing users to see and copy the trades of successful investors. This unique approach has made investing more accessible and engaging for millions of Europeans.

Platform Overview

eToro launched in 2007 and has grown to over 30 million users worldwide. The platform is regulated by multiple authorities including the FCA in the UK, CySEC in Cyprus, and other European regulators. This multi-regulation provides strong investor protection across Europe.

Key Features

The standout feature is CopyTrader, which allows you to automatically copy the trades of successful investors. You can browse top performers, see their track records, and allocate funds to copy their strategies. This is particularly valuable for beginners who want to learn from experienced traders.

eToro offers commission-free stock trading on over 3,000 stocks from 17 exchanges worldwide. You can also invest in ETFs, cryptocurrencies, commodities, currencies, and indices. The platform supports fractional shares, allowing you to invest any amount in expensive stocks.

Smart Portfolios are pre-built, professionally managed portfolios focused on specific themes or strategies. These provide instant diversification for investors who prefer a hands-off approach.

Fees

Stock and ETF trading is commission-free. However, eToro charges a $5 withdrawal fee and currency conversion fees of 0.5% when depositing or withdrawing in currencies other than USD. There’s also a $10 monthly inactivity fee after 12 months of no login.

User Experience

The eToro app is modern and intuitive, with a social media-like interface. The news feed shows market updates and what other traders are doing. Charts and analysis tools are available but more basic than some competitors.

Who Should Use eToro

eToro is ideal for beginners who want to learn from other investors, social traders who enjoy community features, investors interested in multiple asset classes including crypto, and those who want a simple, modern interface.

Availability

eToro is available in most European countries including the UK, Germany, France, Spain, Italy, Netherlands, and many others. Some features may vary by country.


5. DEGIRO: Best for Low Fees

DEGIRO revolutionized European investing by offering institutional-level pricing to retail investors. If minimizing costs is your priority, DEGIRO is hard to beat.

Platform Overview

Founded in the Netherlands in 2013, DEGIRO quickly became one of Europe’s largest retail brokers. The platform is now part of flatexDEGIRO, a publicly traded German financial services company. DEGIRO is regulated by the German BaFin and Dutch AFM, providing strong regulatory oversight.

Key Features

DEGIRO offers access to over 50 exchanges worldwide, providing enormous choice for stock investors. You can trade stocks on European exchanges, US markets, Asian exchanges, and more. The ETF selection includes thousands of options, with a core selection available commission-free.

The platform also offers bonds, investment funds, options, futures, and warrants for more advanced investors. This breadth of offerings makes DEGIRO suitable as your portfolio grows in complexity.

DEGIRO’s pricing is transparent and consistently among the lowest in Europe. The fee structure is clear, with no hidden costs.

Fees

DEGIRO’s fees are exceptionally competitive. Trading US stocks costs €1 plus an additional small external fee. European stocks cost €2-4 depending on the exchange. There’s a core selection of ETFs that can be traded once per month completely free. There are no deposit or withdrawal fees, no inactivity fees, and no custody fees for basic accounts.

User Experience

The DEGIRO interface is functional rather than flashy. It provides the information you need without unnecessary complexity. The mobile app is reliable and includes all essential features. However, research tools are more limited than some competitors, and the platform may feel basic to those wanting extensive analysis features.

Who Should Use DEGIRO

DEGIRO is ideal for cost-conscious investors who want minimum fees, buy-and-hold investors building long-term portfolios, ETF investors seeking commission-free options, experienced investors who don’t need hand-holding, and those wanting access to many international markets.

Availability

DEGIRO is available in most European countries including Germany, Netherlands, UK, France, Spain, Italy, Portugal, Ireland, and many others.


6. Trading 212: Best for Commission-Free Trading

Trading 212 offers genuinely commission-free trading on thousands of stocks and ETFs, combined with features like fractional shares and a user-friendly interface.

Platform Overview

Trading 212 launched in Bulgaria in 2004 and has grown to serve over 2 million customers. The platform is regulated by the FCA in the UK and other European regulators. Recent years have seen significant growth as commission-free trading gained popularity.

Key Features

The primary attraction is commission-free trading on over 10,000 stocks and ETFs. Unlike some competitors with strings attached, Trading 212’s free trading is genuinely unlimited. Fractional shares allow investment from just €1 in any stock, regardless of share price.

AutoInvest lets you create automated investment plans. You build a custom portfolio pie, set a schedule, and the app automatically invests your chosen amount according to your allocation. This is perfect for systematic, long-term investing.

Trading 212 also offers CFD trading through a separate account, allowing leveraged trading for experienced users. The Invest and CFD accounts are clearly separated.

Fees

Stock and ETF trading is commission-free. Currency conversion is 0.15% for the Invest account, which is competitive. There are no deposit or withdrawal fees and no inactivity fees. The spread on CFD trading is competitive but normal CFD risks apply.

User Experience

Trading 212’s app is modern, clean, and easy to navigate. The interface makes complex features accessible to beginners while providing enough depth for intermediate investors. Educational content is built into the app, helping new users learn.

Who Should Use Trading 212

Trading 212 is ideal for beginners wanting a simple start to investing, cost-conscious traders who want zero commissions, systematic investors using automated investment plans, fractional share investors building positions gradually, and UK investors who want an ISA option.

Availability

Trading 212 is available throughout most of Europe, including the UK, Germany, France, Netherlands, Spain, and other EU countries.


7. Interactive Brokers: Best for Serious Investors

Interactive Brokers is the professional’s choice, offering unmatched market access, sophisticated tools, and competitive pricing for active and serious investors.

Platform Overview

Founded in 1978, Interactive Brokers is one of the world’s largest electronic brokers. The company is publicly traded and regulated in multiple jurisdictions including the SEC, FCA, and various European regulators. This is a serious financial institution used by hedge funds and professional traders.

Key Features

Interactive Brokers offers access to 150 markets in 33 countries. You can trade stocks, options, futures, forex, bonds, ETFs, mutual funds, and more. No other retail platform matches this breadth of access.

The Trader Workstation platform provides institutional-grade tools for analysis and execution. For those wanting something simpler, the IBKR Mobile app and web platform offer more accessible interfaces while maintaining powerful functionality.

Advanced order types, algorithmic trading, and portfolio margin are available for sophisticated strategies. Research tools include integrated news, fundamentals, analyst ratings, and advanced charting.

Fees

Interactive Brokers offers two pricing plans. The Fixed plan charges $0.005 per share with a $1 minimum for US stocks, and similarly competitive rates for European markets. The Tiered plan offers even lower rates for high-volume traders.

IBKR Lite, available in some regions, offers commission-free US stock trading. Currency conversion rates are excellent at around 0.002%. There are no account minimums and no inactivity fees on most account types.

User Experience

Interactive Brokers has historically been complex and intimidating for beginners. Recent years have brought significant improvements with simplified interfaces and mobile apps. However, it remains more complex than consumer-focused apps like eToro or Trading 212. The learning curve is real but worth it for serious investors.

Who Should Use Interactive Brokers

Interactive Brokers is ideal for experienced investors wanting professional tools, active traders requiring advanced order types, investors wanting access to global markets, portfolio builders seeking the lowest possible costs, and those trading options, futures, or forex.

Availability

Interactive Brokers is available throughout Europe and globally. The full feature set is available everywhere, making it a consistent choice regardless of your country.


8. Scalable Capital: Best for ETF Investing

Scalable Capital combines a user-friendly app with excellent ETF offerings and innovative savings plan features, making it ideal for passive investors.

Platform Overview

Scalable Capital launched in Germany in 2014, initially as a robo-advisor before expanding to self-directed investing. The platform is regulated by BaFin and has grown rapidly, now serving over 1 million customers. It’s particularly strong in German-speaking markets but is expanding across Europe.

Key Features

Scalable Capital offers over 7,500 stocks and 2,000 ETFs. The platform is particularly strong for ETF investors, with many ETFs available commission-free through savings plans.

Savings Plans allow automated, regular investments from as little as €1. You can set up recurring investments in ETFs or stocks, with many ETFs completely free to buy through this method. This makes systematic, long-term investing extremely cost-effective.

The platform also offers a wealth management service where algorithms manage your portfolio based on your risk profile. This robo-advisor option suits those wanting completely hands-off investing.

Fees

Scalable Capital offers three pricing tiers. The Free Broker tier charges €0.99 per trade for stocks and many ETF savings plans are free. The Prime Broker tier costs €2.99 per month and offers unlimited free trading on stocks over €250 and all ETF savings plans. The Prime+ tier costs €4.99 per month and adds 2.6% interest on cash.

For ETF investors using savings plans, Scalable Capital is among the cheapest options in Europe.

User Experience

The app is modern, clean, and intuitive. Setting up savings plans is straightforward, and portfolio visualization is excellent. The interface strikes a good balance between simplicity and functionality.

Who Should Use Scalable Capital

Scalable Capital is ideal for ETF investors seeking low-cost passive investing, systematic investors using regular savings plans, German-speaking users for the best experience, those wanting robo-advisor options, and investors who trade frequently and benefit from flat-fee plans.

Availability

Scalable Capital is currently available in Germany, Austria, France, Italy, Spain, and Netherlands, with further European expansion planned.


9. XTB: Best for Active Traders

XTB combines commission-free stock trading with powerful analysis tools and educational resources, making it suitable for active traders who want professional features.

Platform Overview

XTB launched in Poland in 2002 and has grown into one of Europe’s largest listed brokers. The company is regulated by multiple authorities including FCA, KNF in Poland, CySEC, and others. With over 20 years of history, XTB has established strong credibility.

Key Features

XTB offers commission-free trading on stocks and ETFs up to €100,000 monthly turnover. Beyond this threshold, standard commissions apply. For most retail investors, this effectively means free trading.

The xStation 5 platform provides professional-grade charting, technical analysis tools, and market analysis. The platform is available on web, desktop, and mobile, with consistent functionality across all versions.

XTB is particularly strong for CFD trading, offering leveraged access to forex, indices, commodities, and cryptocurrencies. The platform includes integrated risk management tools and educational content.

Fees

Stock and ETF trading is commission-free up to €100,000 monthly volume. Currency conversion is 0.5%, which is higher than some competitors. There are no deposit fees. Withdrawals under €200 incur a small fee. CFD spreads are competitive.

User Experience

xStation 5 is a powerful platform with a steeper learning curve than simpler apps. However, it’s well-designed and becomes intuitive with use. The mobile app maintains most desktop functionality. Educational content and market analysis are extensive.

Who Should Use XTB

XTB is ideal for active traders wanting professional tools, technical analysts requiring advanced charting, CFD traders alongside stock investing, those wanting extensive educational resources, and European traders seeking a well-regulated platform.

Availability

XTB is available throughout Europe and globally, with particularly strong presence in Poland, Germany, UK, Spain, and France.


10. Revolut: Best for Casual Investors

Revolut brings investing into its all-in-one financial app, making it incredibly convenient for existing users to start investing alongside their banking.

Platform Overview

Revolut launched in 2015 as a foreign exchange and payments app, later adding investment features. The company holds various licenses across Europe and has grown to over 35 million customers. While primarily a banking app, its investment features have become increasingly capable.

Key Features

Revolut offers stock trading in US and European stocks, commission-free within plan limits. The integration with your Revolut account means seamless transfers between spending, saving, and investing.

The app supports fractional shares starting from $1, making expensive stocks accessible. Recurring investments allow automated regular purchases. Cryptocurrency trading is also available within the same app.

Revolut’s simplicity is its strength. You can buy your first stock in minutes without needing a separate investment account.

Fees

Free trades depend on your Revolut plan. Standard users get 1 free trade per month, Plus users get 3, Premium users get 5, and Metal and Ultra users get unlimited. Beyond free trades, commissions are €1 per trade. Custody fees of 0.12% per year apply.

Currency conversion uses Revolut’s exchange rates, which are competitive but not the cheapest for investing purposes.

User Experience

Investing in Revolut is seamlessly integrated into the main app. The interface is extremely simple and beginner-friendly. However, research tools and advanced features are limited compared to dedicated investment platforms.

Who Should Use Revolut

Revolut is ideal for existing Revolut users wanting convenient investing, complete beginners making their first investments, casual investors not requiring advanced features, those wanting banking and investing in one app, and investors who trade infrequently within free trade limits.

Availability

Revolut is available throughout Europe and beyond, wherever Revolut banking services operate.


11. Lightyear: Best Newcomer

Lightyear is a newer entrant focused on simple, transparent, and low-cost investing for European users.

Platform Overview

Lightyear launched in 2021, founded by former Wise and Transferwise employees. The platform is regulated by the FCA in the UK and Estonian regulators for European operations. Despite being new, the experienced team has built a polished product.

Key Features

Lightyear offers commission-free trading on US and European stocks and ETFs. A standout feature is multi-currency accounts, allowing you to hold USD, EUR, and GBP. You can deposit in your local currency and convert when exchange rates are favorable, potentially saving significant amounts on currency conversion.

The platform supports fractional shares and recurring investments. The focus is on simplicity and transparency, with clear fee information and a clean interface.

Fees

Stock and ETF trading is commission-free. Currency conversion is 0.35%, which is competitive. There are no deposit, withdrawal, or custody fees. The fee structure is simple and transparent.

User Experience

Lightyear’s app is modern, clean, and intuitive. It’s clearly designed for mobile-first users who want a straightforward experience. The interface is less cluttered than many competitors, making it very beginner-friendly.

Who Should Use Lightyear

Lightyear is ideal for beginners wanting a simple start, multi-currency investors buying US and European stocks, those who value transparent and simple pricing, mobile-first investors, and UK and European users seeking a modern platform.

Availability

Lightyear is available in the UK and expanding across Europe.


12. Fees Comparison

Understanding fees is crucial for long-term investment returns. Here’s how the major platforms compare.

AppStock CommissionETF CommissionCurrency ConversionWithdrawal FeeCustody Fee
eToroFreeFree0.5% (deposits/withdrawals)$5None
DEGIRO€1-4Free (core) / €20.25%FreeNone
Trading 212FreeFree0.15%FreeNone
Interactive Brokers~$1 minVery low0.002%FreeNone
Scalable Capital€0.99 or free (Prime)Free (savings plans)N/A (EUR only)FreeNone
XTBFree (up to €100k)Free (up to €100k)0.5%Free (€200+)None
Revolut€1 or free (limited)€1 or free (limited)Revolut ratesFree0.12%/year
LightyearFreeFree0.35%FreeNone

Key Takeaways on Fees

For minimal fees overall, DEGIRO and Interactive Brokers offer the lowest total costs, especially for larger portfolios.

For commission-free trading, Trading 212, Lightyear, and XTB offer genuinely free stock trading without volume limits.

For currency conversion, Interactive Brokers is unmatched at 0.002%. This matters significantly if you frequently buy US stocks from Europe.

For ETF investors, Scalable Capital’s free savings plans make systematic ETF investing extremely cost-effective.


13. How to Choose the Right App

With many excellent options available, here’s how to narrow down the right choice for you.

If You’re a Complete Beginner

Start with eToro for social trading features and learning from others, Trading 212 for simplicity and commission-free trading, or Revolut if you’re already using it for banking. These platforms minimize complexity while you learn.

If Minimizing Costs Is Your Priority

Choose DEGIRO or Interactive Brokers for the lowest overall fees. If you trade frequently in foreign currency stocks, Interactive Brokers’ currency conversion rates provide significant savings.

If You’re Building a Long-Term ETF Portfolio

Consider Scalable Capital for excellent ETF savings plans, DEGIRO for low-cost ETF trading, or Trading 212 for commission-free ETF purchases with automated investing features.

If You’re an Active Trader

Interactive Brokers provides the most sophisticated tools for active trading. XTB offers professional features with commission-free trading up to €100,000 monthly.

If You Want Multiple Asset Classes

eToro offers stocks, ETFs, crypto, commodities, and more in one place. Interactive Brokers provides the widest range of investment options globally.

If You Value Simplicity Above All

Lightyear offers a clean, focused experience without overwhelming options. Revolut integrates investing seamlessly with everyday banking.


14. Getting Started: Step by Step

Ready to start investing? Here’s how to begin.

Step 1: Choose Your Platform

Based on the factors above, select the app that best matches your needs. You can always open accounts with multiple platforms later.

Step 2: Download and Register

Download the app from your device’s app store. Registration typically requires your email address and phone number, personal information including name, address, and date of birth, national ID or passport for verification, and tax identification number.

Step 3: Verify Your Identity

Regulated platforms must verify your identity. This usually involves uploading ID documents and sometimes a selfie. Verification typically takes minutes to a few days.

Step 4: Deposit Funds

Transfer money from your bank account. Most platforms support bank transfers, with some accepting cards or e-wallets. First deposits may take a few days to process.

Step 5: Start Small

Don’t invest everything immediately. Start with a small amount to learn how the platform works. Make a few test trades to understand the process.

Step 6: Diversify

Don’t put all your money in single stocks. Consider ETFs for instant diversification. Spread investments across different sectors and regions.

Step 7: Invest Regularly

Set up recurring investments if available. Regular investing smooths out market volatility through euro-cost averaging. Consistency matters more than timing.

Step 8: Keep Learning

Use educational resources provided by your platform. Stay informed about your investments. Understand what you own and why.


15. Frequently Asked Questions

Are investment apps safe?

Reputable investment apps regulated by authorities like the FCA, BaFin, or other European regulators are safe. Your money is held in segregated accounts, and investor compensation schemes protect you if the broker fails. Always verify regulation before depositing money.

How much money do I need to start investing?

Many apps allow you to start with €1 through fractional shares. While you can start very small, having at least €100-500 allows more meaningful diversification.

Which app has the lowest fees?

For trading commissions, Trading 212, Lightyear, and XTB offer free stock trading. For overall costs including currency conversion, Interactive Brokers and DEGIRO are cheapest. The lowest-cost option depends on what and how often you trade.

Can I have multiple investment accounts?

Yes. There’s no rule against having accounts with multiple platforms. Many investors use different apps for different purposes.

What’s the difference between stocks and ETFs?

Stocks are shares in individual companies. ETFs are funds that hold many stocks, providing instant diversification. Most beginners benefit from starting with ETFs.

Should I invest a lump sum or regularly?

Regular investing through monthly contributions reduces the impact of market timing and builds investing habits. Lump sums can be invested gradually over several months to reduce risk.

Do I have to pay taxes on investment gains?

Yes. Investment gains are typically taxable in European countries. Tax rules vary by country, and some countries offer tax-advantaged accounts. Consult a tax professional for advice specific to your situation.

What happens if an investment app goes bankrupt?

Regulated brokers hold client assets separately from company assets. Investor compensation schemes like the UK’s FSCS or European equivalents provide additional protection. Your investments should be safe even if the broker fails.

Can I transfer my investments to another platform?

Most platforms allow transferring investments to other brokers. The process can take several weeks and may involve fees. Check specific transfer policies before opening accounts.


Final Thoughts

The investment app you choose depends on your personal circumstances, investment goals, and preferences. There’s no single best app for everyone.

For most European investors just starting out, Trading 212 or eToro offer excellent combinations of simplicity, features, and low costs. As your portfolio grows and needs become more sophisticated, DEGIRO or Interactive Brokers provide the tools and pricing for serious investing.

Whatever platform you choose, the most important step is simply to start. Long-term wealth building comes from consistent investing over time, not from finding the perfect app. Choose a regulated platform that fits your needs, start small, learn as you go, and gradually build your investment knowledge and portfolio.

Your future self will thank you for starting today.


Resources

Regulatory Authorities

For verifying broker regulation, the Financial Conduct Authority in the UK is at fca.org.uk. BaFin in Germany is at bafin.de. The European Securities and Markets Authority list of regulated entities is at esma.europa.eu.

Educational Resources

Investopedia provides comprehensive investing education at investopedia.com. JustETF offers European ETF research at justetf.com.

Platform Links

All platforms mentioned can be found through their official websites. Search for the platform name to find their official site, and verify you’re on the legitimate site before entering any information.


Disclaimer

This guide provides general information about investment applications and does not constitute financial advice, investment advice, or any other type of advice.

Investing involves risk. The value of investments can fall as well as rise, and you may get back less than you invested. Past performance is not a reliable indicator of future results.

The information in this guide was accurate at the time of writing but may have changed. Features, fees, and availability vary by country and change over time. Always verify current information on official platform websites.

Consider your financial situation, investment objectives, and risk tolerance before investing. If in doubt, seek advice from a qualified financial advisor.

The author is not affiliated with any of the platforms mentioned. This guide is provided for educational purposes only.


Last updated: 2026

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